Field observation essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Field observation - Essay Example The protagonist in the narrative presents the reader with a view of American teenage life that is both touching, but also alarming in its suggestion that teenagers feel alienated and insecure throughout their high school years. These feelings are perhaps amplified when the teenager is even more â€Å"different† than usual – from another culture, or identified as something other than mainstream, white, upper class American. Being an outsider, and always striving for acceptance but never finding it, is something which every American teenager may experience. But the personal experience of the narrator of the novel, and its resonances in the personal life of this writer from the basis of this essay. The First Person writing style stems from this exploration of personal opinions and reactions to the novel, â€Å"Prep†. The first and perhaps most predictable point of identification I had with the novel â€Å"Prep† is with the character, Sin-Jun. Sin-Jun is described as being from Korea, and the narrator comments that, â€Å"Like me, Sin-Jun had no friends.† (Sittenfeld, p.10) Superficially, since my background is also Korean – I have lived in the United States now for 6 years – this character is one with whom I should identify. I arrived in the United States when I was in Junior High, and graduated high school here. The difficulties I experienced when I first arrived could be paralleled by some of the experiences Sin-Jun is described as having. Perhaps the description of the squid Sin-Jun keeps in her locker, and her roommates’ reaction to its smell, as well as Sun-Jin’s sexual preferences are too radically removed from my personal experience to allow close comparisons but in one area I am able to identify with her strongly. Language is certainly one of the primary difficulties when you are trying to adapt to a new school. If your language is absolutely not understood by anyone

How convincing is Porter's model of national competitive advantage in Essay - 1

How convincing is Porter's model of national competitive advantage in explaining the workings and achievements of major nation - Essay Example The claims are based on the total percentage of the entire exports across the entire globe and their relation to the three nations (Hill, 2009). This is an evidence of how Porter created a convincing analysis on his view on national competitiveness. In explaining the national business systems, Porter analyses national business systems by reviewing their input in the global market. He argues that the more exports a nation make the more significance it has in the global market(Thompson, 2004).This way of reviewing national business systems is preferable when comparing the output of nations in the global market. According to Thompson (2004) this method may be however, biased since not all national business systems are based on exports. The author further argues that they are nations with greater G.D.Ps and have very stable economic systems and they have less input in the international market (Thompson, 2004). In using porter’s way of analysis such nations lacks the international standard of competitive advantage. This assumption has created a Porter system that only recognizes the financial stable nations on the global market (Uchida & Cook, 2005). Porter uses the national diamond to show the influence of nations to their local companies. The influence and pressure from a nation will be a great determinant on whether or not the organizations attain an international competitive advantage. Nations provide support and resources to specific countries which then generate outstanding products and income. However, analysts argue that this diamond structure is usually biased depending on mutual agreement by both parties. For instance, an organization may enter into a deal with a government to share a certain percentage of their profits in exchange for support and resources. In such a scenario the market becomes unbalanced (Smit, 2010). However, this strategy is used by states to strengthen their international market significance. In an argument by Smit (2010) the g reater the significance in the international market the greater income through partnerships and revenues. The author further argues that, state governments use the national diamond to help the nation gain greater competitive advantage in the international market. This automatically raises the economic status of an organization. In support of the national diamond strategy, Porter claims that it improves specialization and the quality of goods produced in a country (Schott, 2004). He gave an example with Denmark and its influence in the global market in terms of export of insulin. The Danish government has significantly alleviated the production of insulin and treatment of diabetes in the country. It has provided resources, diplomatic and economic support for this project (Peng, 2009). The impact of this move is significant to the whole industry. Denmark is the leading exporter of insulin in the globe. Minus the support from the government this achievement would not have been possible (Peng, 2009). In Holland there is a premier research institute which focuses on cultivation, shipping and packaging of flowers. This project is almost a sole project of the Holland government that is supplied with resources and labor from the body. After this intervention Holland has become the leading exporter of flowers in the globe (Salvatore, 2002). This shows how great significance government support is on an organization. However, Porter

Protective Role of Isolated Rat Hepatocytes Against CCL4

Protective Role of Isolated Rat Hepatocytes Against CCL4 DISCUSSION CCl4, Paracetamol and Anti-tubercular drugs cause ROS mediated cellular damage especially in liver, the site of metabolism of these drugs. During the regular physiological functioning the cells/tissues/organs use oxygen and various nutrients to generate energy. The free radicals are also generated in this process as the reaction intermediates. These free radicals may be very useful because they may promote beneficial oxidative processes. However the higher quantities of such radicals like superoxide anion (O2à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ·), NOà ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ · radical, and hydroxyl ion radical (à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ·OH), NOOà ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ·, etc. may interact with the membrane lipids leading to lipid peroxidation and attack the DNA resulting DNA strand breaks. The lipid peroxidation also damage cell membrane resulting in the leakage of enzymes into the blood stream. Therefore the elevated biochemical levels are treated as biochemical markers of tissue damage. In addition the extent of lipid peroxidation is d irectly proportional to the tissue damage [Devasagayam et al., 2003]. There are certain inbuilt protective mechanisms, tissue enzymes GSH, SOD, CAT etc. which are involved in the process of combating free radical induced tissue damage. Over powering the inbuilt protective mechanism due to excessive generation of free radicals may lead to destruction of the tissues/organs [Tiwari, 2001]. Antioxidants are the chemical constituents, which are used for inhibiting the tissue damage by countering the free radicals; most of the antioxidants available in the markets are from natural origin e.g. vit-E, vit-C, tocopherol, quercetine, à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¢-carotene etc. In addition there are reports that polyphenolic compounds like flavonoids, tannins are useful as antioxidants and organ protectants. Therefore many researchers are attempting to screen the herbs and herbal preparations containing polyphenolic compounds for organ protective properties. Mruthunjaya, 2008 in his study reported the presence of very high amount of polyphenols and gallic acid, a well known potent antioxidant [Gow- chin et al, 2002] as an important constituent of the roots of a widely grown plant L. inermis. He also reported the antioxidant and in vitro and in vivo hepatoprotective activity of L. inermis root extract against CCl4 induced hepatotoxicity in rats. So in the present study L.inermis was selected f or investigating the in vivo and in vitro hepatoprotective activity against drugs induced hepatotoxicity. Before screening the test extract for in vivo hepatoprotective activity the extract was subjected to the acute toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines 425 (limit test). The LIALC was found safe up to 2000 mg/kg as evident by the absence of mortality in the treated group. Hence, 1/10th (200 mg/kg) and 1/7th (300 mg/kg) of the safe dose were selected for the in vivo study. In vitro hepatoprotective Screening In the present study, isolated rat hepatocytes were used. The objective of this study was to confirm the protective role of test extracts against CCl4 induced hepatocytes damage. The CCl4 metabolized in (liver) endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria with the formation of CCl3O (unstable complex radical), by CYT P-450. The nascent oxygen O resulted via lipoperoxidation causes rise in intracellular reactive Fe2+ ions, aldehyde and depletion of GSH, and calcium sequestration. Oxidative CCl3O, also by direct covalent interaction induces degeneration in Ca2+ sequestration. Failure into sequestration result in increased intercellular Ca2+, aggregation by proteolytic enzymes and cause an increase in Fe2+ ions, which in turn by lipid peroxidation precipitates aldehyde cytotoxicity [Zimmerman Hayman, 1976, Agarwal et. al., 1983]. Due to this membrane integrity is lost ultimately leading to necrosis. The loss of membrane integrity can be measured by Trypan blue exclusion assay in which the viable cells exclude the dye whereas dead cell take up the dye owing to the alteration in membrane permeability. Due to loss of membrane integrity cytosolic enzymes are leaked into media and the measurement of these cytoplasmic enzymes in the media serves as ideal markers for evaluating the extent of hepatocyte injury and protection offered by extracts. From the results it was apparent that both LIALC and LIAQ protect the hepatocytes against CCl4 damage as evident by the reversal of cell death and inhibition leakage of cytosolic enzymes. As discussed earlier this strong hepatoprotective activity of LIALC might be due presence of polyphenols and gallic acid which are potent free radical scavenging agents and antioxidants [Gow- chin et al, 2002] In vivo hepatoprotective activity Paracetamol (N-acetyl-p-aminophenol) is a widely used analgesic and antipyretic drug and is safe when used in therapeutic doses. However over dosage of Paracetamol is known to be hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic in man and in experimental animals [Parmar et al., 1995]. Paracetamol is a direct hepatotoxin i.e. intoxication is dose dependent and reproducible [Tygstrup et al., 1996]. Exposure of animals to higher doses produces centrilobular or massive hepatic necrosis followed by congestion and failure. The hepatic necrosis is associated with damage to sub cellular organelle including mitochondria. Thus the drug is used as a typical hepatotoxin to produce hepatic failure experimentally [Sing et al., 1999]. At lower doses, about 80% of ingested Paracetamol is eliminated mainly as sulfate and glucoronide conjugates before oxidation and only 5% is oxidized by hepatic CYT P450(CYP2E1) to a highly reactive and toxic electrophile i.e. N-acetyl-p-benzoquineimine (NAPQI). After over dosage of Paracetamol the glucoronidation and sulfation routes become saturated and as a consequence, Paracetamol is increasingly metabolized into NAPQI [Remirez et al., 1995]. Semiquinone radical, one-electron reduction metabolite of NAPQI mediates the cytotoxic effects of NAPQI. Production of these toxic semiquinone radicals is catalyzed by the microsomal CYT P450 reductase. These semiquinone radicals, in turn, can bind directly with cellular macromolecules to produce toxicity or alternatively, the radical can be reoxidized back to their original quinones by donating one electron to molecular oxygen under aerobic conditions. This donation of one electron then generates reduced oxygen radical species and hydroxyl radical. Both semiquinone and oxygen radical are known to be responsible for cytotoxic effects observed with quinones. Also NAPQI is detoxified by glutathione (GSH) to form 3-(GSH-S-yl) acetaminophen. Paracetamol overdose saturates the nontoxic metabolic pathway, i.e. sulfation, glucuronidation, and detoxification of NAPQI by glutathione. The reactive NAPQI may oxidize and arylate cysteinyl thiol group, forming adducts which inhibit the function of cellular proteins. Adducts formation has been demonstrated for a selenium-binding protein, for microsomal subunit of glutamine. Other mechanism, such as oxidation of pyridine nucleotides and lipid peroxidation, may contribute to cell damage by Paracetamol overdose [Tygstrup et al., 1996]. Nevertheless at high doses of Paracetamol, NAPQI can alkylate and oxidize intracellular GSH and protein thiol group, which result in the liver GSH pool depletion and the reactive intermediate reacts with other nucleophilic centers of vital molecules in liver cells leading subsequently to hepatotoxicity. In addition Paracetamol is also shown to directly inhibit cellular proliferation, induce oxidative stress, resulting in lipid peroxidation, deplete ATP levels and alter Ca++ homeostasis; all of these changes are considered potentially fatal to the cell [Sing,. 1999 and Remirez et al., 1995]. Anti-tuberculosis drugs act as inducers of hepatic CYT P450 enzymes. For example, Rifampicin is a potent inducer of CYP2D6 and CYP3A4, and Isoniazid induces CYP2E1 [Trevor, 2004 and Vuilleumier et al., 2006]. The induction of CYT P450 enzymes is known to take part in increased drug disposition and development of multi-drug resistance. Xenobiotics, including anti-tubercular drugs, undergo biotransformation in the liver catalyzed by microsomal enzyme systems [Bradford, 2005; Dai et al., 1995and Jeong, 1995]. Because of above reasons, Paracetamol and anti-tubercular drugs cause ROS mediated hepatotoxicity and elevate serum enzymes levels like SGOT, SGPT, ALP, LDH and Bilirubin content in animals following administration of anti-tubercular drugs or toxic dose of Paracetamol. Also these drugs cause depletion of endogenous antioxidant enzymes like GSH, SOD, CAT etc and abnormal levels of lipid peroxidation products.The results obtained in the present are in accordance with understanding as discussed above. i.e the serum enzymes levels like SGOT, SGPT, ALP, LDH and Bilirubin contents were significantly increased, GSH, SOD, CAT levels in liver depleted and abnormal levels of lipid peroxidation was observed in Paracetamol and anti-tubercular drugs treated animals. Estimation of serum enzymes SGPT is a cytosolic enzyme primarily present in the liver. The level of SGPT in serum increases due to leakage of this cellular enzyme into plasma by hepatic injury [Chenoweth Hake, 1962]. Serum levels of SGPT can increase due to damage of the tissues producing acute hepatic necrosis, such as viral hepatitis and acute cholestasis. Alcoholic liver damage and cirrhosis also can associate with mild to moderate elevation of transaminase [Harsh Mohan, 2002]. SGOT is a mitochondrial enzyme released from heart, liver, skeletal muscle and kidney. Liver toxicity elevated the SGOT level in serum due to the damage to the tissues producing acute necrosis, such as severe viral hepatitis acute cholestasis. Alcoholic liver damage and cirrhosis can also associate with mild to moderate elevation of transaminases [Harsh Mohan, 2002]. In case of toxic liver, ALP levels are very high, which may be due to defective hepatic excretion or by increased production of ALP by hepatic parenchymal or duct cells [Harsh Mohan, 2002]. LIALC reversed these enzyme levels indicating stabilization of cell membrane by preventing the damage due to free radicals generated by Paracetamol and anti-tubercular drugs. Estimation of bilirubin: In case of toxic liver, bilirubin levels are elevated. Hyperbilirubinemia can result from impaired hepatic uptake of unconjugated bilirubin. Such a situation can occur in generalized liver cell injury. Certain drugs (e.g., Rifampin and Probenecid) interfere with the net uptake of bilirubin by the liver cell and may produce a mild unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia [Rubin, 1995]. Bilirubin level rises in diseases of hepatocytes, obstruction to biliary excretion into duodenum, in haemolysis and defects of hepatic uptake and conjugation of bilirubin pigment such as in Gilbert’s disease [Harsh mohan, 2002]. Significant reversal of elevated bilirubin level in Paracetamol and anti-tubercular drug treated animals by LIALC indicated the strong hepatoprotective activity of LIALC. Estimation of Protein A reduction in total serum protein observed in the Paracetamol and anti-tubercular treated control rats may be associated with the decrease in the number of hepatocytes which in turn might result in decreased hepatic capacity to synthesize protein. But, when the LIALC was administered along with Paracetamol or anti-tubercular drugs a significant increase in protein content was observed indicating the hepatoprotection of LIALC. Estimation of endogenous antioxidant enzymes and Lipid Peroxidation Cells have a number of mechanisms to protect themselves from the toxic effects of the ROS. SOD removes superoxide (O2) by converting it to H2O2, which can be rapidly converted to water by CAT and Glutathione peroxidase. In addition, a large reserve of reduced glutathione is present in hepatocytes and red blood cells for detoxification of xenobiotics or free radicals. However, oxidative stress results in toxicity when the rate of which the ROS are generated exceeds the cell capacity for their removal. Lipid peroxidation is an autocatalytic process, which is a common consequence of cell death. This process may cause peroxidative tissue damage in inflammation, cancer and toxicity of xenobiotics and aging. MDA is one of the end products in the lipid peroxidation process. In order to elucidate the protection mechanism of LIALC in Paracetamol and anti- tubercular Drugs induced rat liver, lipid peroxide levels and anti-oxidative enzymes activities were analyzed. GSH is widely distributed in cells. GSH is an intracellular reductant and plays a major role in catalysis, metabolism and transport. It protects cells against free radicals, peroxides and other toxic compounds. GSH is a naturally occurring substance that is abundant in many living creatures. It is well known that a deficiency of GSH within living organisms can lead to tissue disorders and injury. For example, liver injury included by consuming alcohol or by taking drugs like Paracetamol, lung injury by smoking and muscle injury by intense physical activity, all are known to be correlated with low tissue level of GSH. The SOD converts super-oxide radicals (O2_) into H2O2 plus O2, thus participating in the enzymatic defense against oxygen toxicity. In this study, SOD plays an important role in the elimination of ROS derived from the peroxidative process of xenobiotics in liver tissues. CAT is the key component of the anti-oxidant defense system .Inhibition of this protective mechanisms result in enhanced sensitivity to free radical induced cellular damage. Administration of LIALC increased the activity of catalase in Paracetamol and anti-tubercular drug induced liver damage to prevent the accumulation of excessive free radicals and thus exhibited protection against Paracetamol and anti-tubercular drug. The observed increase of SOD, CAT and GSH activity in liver suggests that the LIALC extract have an efficient protective mechanism in response to ROS. And also, these findings indicate that LIALC may be associated with decreased oxidative stress and free radical mediated tissue damage. In our study, elevation in the levels of end products of lipid peroxidation in liver of rat treated with Paracetamol and anti- tubercular drugs were observed. The increase in MDA level in liver suggests enhanced lipid peroxidation leading to tissue damage and failure of anti-oxidant defense mechanism to prevent formation of excessive free radicals. Treatment with LIALC significantly reversed these changes. Hence it may be possible that the mechanism of hepatoprotection of LIALC is due to its antioxidant effect. Dept of pharmacology, P.R.R.M college of pharmacy,kadapaPage 1

Mathematics of Lenses and Optical Glass :: Math

Missing figures PROPERTIES OF LENSES, OPTICAL GLASS Composition Glass is a solid, structureless and amorphous. There are two main group classification of optical glass: 1. Crown, and 2. Flint (has a high content of lead oxide) Chemicals are combined to produce new glass types. These new glass types are used to benefit other different types of cameras (such as high-speed minature cameras, black/white cameras, etc). Properties The most important optical characteristics of a glass are its refractive index and its degree of dispersion. Refraction is the phenomenon of a light ray that passes from air to glass or from glass to air, and is deflected from its path when it meets the glass surface at an angle. The glasses magnitude depends on two things: the material of the glass and its wavelength. We can see wavelengths as coloured light from (spectrum colours) red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. An example of this is the refraction of light on a raindrop, where we may see a rainbow. Note, that the shorter the wavelength of the light, the more the ray strikes the glass surface is refracted. Blue and violet rays are deflected more than red rays. The degree of the deflection is a case characterized by a value, the refractive index n. It varies from the different colours of the spectrum. The degree of refraction is given by Snellius's law of refraction: where r is the angle or refraction and i is the angle of incidence The value of n for air is 1.00, water is 1.33, crown glass is 1.46 to 1.72 and flint glass is 1.55 to 1.80. In a camera, light is transmitted by the aperture. It forms on the screen a circle of light which is the image of the object point. When the distance of the screen from the aperture is increased, the image will become larger as well as the diameter of the circle of light (image point). The size of the aperature depends on the diameter of the circle of light from the image. The light that passes the aperature is scattered or diffracted. So, if the aperature is too small, the image may become less sharp because of the scatter of light at the aperature opening. A sharp image must have a aperture large enough to reduce the effects of diffraction to a minimum. Lens Shapes A lens is a glass body bounded by two surfaces centred on the optical axis of the lens. Mathematics of Lenses and Optical Glass :: Math Missing figures PROPERTIES OF LENSES, OPTICAL GLASS Composition Glass is a solid, structureless and amorphous. There are two main group classification of optical glass: 1. Crown, and 2. Flint (has a high content of lead oxide) Chemicals are combined to produce new glass types. These new glass types are used to benefit other different types of cameras (such as high-speed minature cameras, black/white cameras, etc). Properties The most important optical characteristics of a glass are its refractive index and its degree of dispersion. Refraction is the phenomenon of a light ray that passes from air to glass or from glass to air, and is deflected from its path when it meets the glass surface at an angle. The glasses magnitude depends on two things: the material of the glass and its wavelength. We can see wavelengths as coloured light from (spectrum colours) red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. An example of this is the refraction of light on a raindrop, where we may see a rainbow. Note, that the shorter the wavelength of the light, the more the ray strikes the glass surface is refracted. Blue and violet rays are deflected more than red rays. The degree of the deflection is a case characterized by a value, the refractive index n. It varies from the different colours of the spectrum. The degree of refraction is given by Snellius's law of refraction: where r is the angle or refraction and i is the angle of incidence The value of n for air is 1.00, water is 1.33, crown glass is 1.46 to 1.72 and flint glass is 1.55 to 1.80. In a camera, light is transmitted by the aperture. It forms on the screen a circle of light which is the image of the object point. When the distance of the screen from the aperture is increased, the image will become larger as well as the diameter of the circle of light (image point). The size of the aperature depends on the diameter of the circle of light from the image. The light that passes the aperature is scattered or diffracted. So, if the aperature is too small, the image may become less sharp because of the scatter of light at the aperature opening. A sharp image must have a aperture large enough to reduce the effects of diffraction to a minimum. Lens Shapes A lens is a glass body bounded by two surfaces centred on the optical axis of the lens.

Leadership assessment style Essay

Culture is the beliefs, views, morals, religious practices, and behaviors specific to a group of people which becomes the frame on which one builds his or her life. Culture affects the way someone behaves, the decision he/she makes in her/his life, from the food one eats to the way someone takes care of himself, and people around him or her. It is important that a nurse has a full understanding of an individual’s culture before making a nursing assessment. The family that is interviewed is from Mexico two years ago. The family consists of Mr Miguel, a thirty two year-old male, his wife Mrs Maria 29 year-old, and his son Rodriguez 2 year-old. This family is a third generation migrating into United State of America for a better life. Although the number has decreased since 1986, border towns in Texas and California still experience large influxes of Mexicans seeking improved employment and educational opportunities (Prunell, 2008). Coming into the United States was a success for Miguel, because he is able to find a job in order to support his family. Although the job requires no significant degree, but he seems happy to work. In Mexico, education is not required to get a job. Once in the United States, a Mexican initially finds work similar to that which he did in his native land, including farming, ranging, mining, oil production, construction, landscaping, and domestic jobs in homes, restaurants, and hotels and motels (Prunell, 2008). Employment is very difficult due to lack of knowledge on how to speak the language, but willing to get underpaid jobs. Socioeconomic status is considered low class with the husband being the head of the household. In Mexico family structure is defined as the man being in power of the household. The typical family dominance pattern in traditional Mexican American families is patriarchal, with evidence of slow change toward a more egalitarian pattern in recent years (Grothaus, 1996)(Prunell, 2008). Change to a more egalitarian decision-making pattern is primarily identified with more educated and higher socioeconomic families (Prunell, 2008). Machismo in the Mexican culture sees men as having strength, valor, and self-confidence, which is a valued trait among many (Prunell, 2008). Men are seen as wiser, braver, stronger, and more knowledgeable regarding sexual matters (Prunell, 2008). The female takes the responsibility for the decisions within the home and maintaining the family’s health( Prunell, 2008). Machismo assists in sustaining and maintaining health not only for the man but also with the implications for health and well-being of the family( Sobralske, 2006)( Prunell, 2008). The family seems to understand each other role and works together to help one another, specially for the sake of the child. Marriage ritual: In Mexican weddings, the couples select those who would be supporting and guiding them throughout the engagement and marriage ceremony. Those mentors are usually people who have played an essential role in the lives of the bride and the groom. According to the tradition, the relative takes turn to dance and pin money on their wedding attire. The reason of this is to express their hopes to be wealthy. Pregnancy: Mexican men view large numbers of children as proof of their virility (Prunell, 2008). The optimal childbearing age is between 19-24 years(Prunell, 2008). Abortion is prohibited in some communities, however it is permissible if there is a life or death situation. Abortion in many communities is considered morally wrong and is practiced only in extreme circumstances to keep the mother’s life intact(Prunell, 2008). The pregnant woman prefers hot foods having in mind that is healthier for the baby. For instance, during a woman is more likely to favor hot foods, which is believed to provide warmth for the fetus and enable to be born into a warm and loving environment (Eggenberger, Grassley, & Restropo, 2006)(Prunell, 2008). A child must have a grandparent if his parent cant fulfill the responsibilities of child-rearing – child is taught to respect his or her parent. Physical punishment is often used as a way of maintaining discipline and sometimes considered child abused (Prunell 2008). Children are taught at early age to respect parents and older family members, specially grandparents ( Prunell, 2008 ). Death is part of Mexican culture. Mexicans often have a stoic acceptance of the way things are and view death as a natural part and will of God (Eggenberger et al; 2008)(Prunell, 2008). When a person expires in the family, the news quickly emerged to everyone of the family. They may gather for a velorio, a festive watch over the body of the deceased person before burial (Prunell, 2008). Mexico is the largest Spanish-speaking countries in the world, with 80 million speaking the language (Prunell, 2008). Mrs Miguel is able to speak English a little, but his wife has some difficulties. The family speaks Spanish fluently at homed, however Mrs Miguel expresses himself in English at his job, where works as a housekeeper. The wife seems to be very closed to her husband which is in Mexican culture a normal trait according to Prunell (2008). The wife is sitting very close to her husband by stroking her husband hands during the interview, no eye contact is made. Mexican Americans consider sustained eye contact when speaking directly to an older person to be rude ( Prunell, 2008). Avoiding eye contact with superior is a sign of respect (Prunell, 2008). The main religious belief of Mexico is Catholic. The predominant of most Mexicans and Mexican Americans is Catholicism (Prunell, 2008). The major religions in Mexico are Roman Catholic, 89 percent; Protestant, 6 percent; and other, 5 percent of the population (Prunell, 2008). Family is important to a Mexican couple. Family takes precedence over work and all other aspects of life (Prunell, 2008). In many Mexican families, it is often said â€Å"God first, then family†(Prunell,2008). The typical Mexican diet consists of rice, eggs, pork, corn, tortillas, sausage, mint, chili peppers, onions, tomatoes, squash, canned fruit, mint tea, chamomile, carbonated beverages, beer, cola-flavored soft drinks, sweetened packaged drink mixes, sweetened breakfast cereals; potatoes, bread, gelatin, custard, refried beans, tacos, stripe soup beef (Prunell, 2008). Family’s lunch includes salad, soup, vegetables, meat (chicken, beef, fish, or shredded pork), fresh fruit, cheeses, fruit water the big meal of the day. A dominant health care practice for Mexican and many is hot-and-cold theory of food selection. Common hot foods used to treat cold diseases and conditions include cheeses, liquor, beef, pork, spicy foods, eggs, grains other than barley, vitamins, tobacco, and onions ( Kemp, 2001) ( Prunell, 2008 ). the client’s perception of illness in a Mexican family is a natural occurring event. Working is a must. Illness may occur when the person can no longer work or take care of the family ( Prunell, 2008). Therefore many Mexicans may not seek health care until they are incapacitated and unable to go about the activities of daily living( Prunell,2008). Many factors may cause illness or it is just an act of God. If the person becomes seriously sick, that is just the way things are; all events are acts of God (Eggenberger et al; 2006)(Prunell,2008). The treatment utilized based on Mexican belief system to treat an illness is as follows: folk medicine, spiritualists, medicine man, ritual, and western health care. Folk medicine is used when mal de ojo occurs usually to child and women. To prevent mal de ojo, the child wears a bracelet or a bag of seeds pinned to the cloths ( kemp,2001) ( Prunell, 2008). Most Mexicans enjoy their soul or spirit, specially in times of illness, whereas many health-care providers may feel uncomfortable talking about spirituality(Prunell,2008). The medicine man is like the folk medicine where one is being manipulated in order to discover an illness. A traditional practice that takes place in Mexico is the use of witchcraft, and a Mexican person believes sometimes that causes the illness of family member which leads family to seek help from the folk practitioners. Specific rituals are carried out to eliminate the evils from blame (Punell, 2008). Family takes full responsibilities of another being ill. Pain is part of life for a Mexican. Mexicans acceptance and anticipate pain as necessary part of life (Prunell, 2008). Culture is very important. Learning someone else culture requires knowledge and understanding. A nurse need to study and knowing a client’s cultural background prior assessment. This cultural assessment is great learning experience. People from different country have different views on many aspects of their life. Nurses must to be aware of a patient cultural beliefs, religious belief, cold-and-hot remedies, client perspective on pain, verbal and non-verbal cues, rituals, foods, etc, in order provide competent care. References Prunell, Larry D. (2008). Transcultural health care: A culturally competent approach, third edition. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company.

Gender Differences in Peer and Parental In?uences: Body Image Disturbance

Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Vol. 33, No. 5, October 2004, pp. 421–429 ( C 2004) Gender Differences in Peer and Parental In? uences: Body Image Disturbance, Self-Worth, and Psychological Functioning in Preadolescent Children Vicky Phares,1 Ari R. Steinberg,2 and J. Kevin Thompson3 Received April 17, 2003; revised January 20, 2004; accepted February 11, 2004 The connections between body image disturbance and psychological functioning have been well established in samples of older adolescent girls and young women. Little is known, however, about body image in younger children. In particular, little is known about possible gender differences in preadolescent children. The current study explored self-reported body image disturbance and psychological functioning in relation to peer and parental in? uences in 141 elementary school-aged girls and boys aged 8–11. Results suggest that girls are more concerned about dieting and are more preoccupied with their weight than are boys. Girls also reported a greater drive for thinness and a higher level of family history of eating concerns than did boys. Correlations suggested that girls’ experiences of body image concerns (body dissatisfaction, bulimia, and drive for thinness) were related to a number of factors (such as family history of eating concerns, peer in? uences, teasing, depression, and global self-worth) whereas boys’ experiences of body image concerns were related to fewer factors. On the basis of these ? ndings, the assessment and treatment of body image concerns in preadolescent children (especially girls) are of great importance. Implications for intervention and prevention programs are discussed. KEY WORDS: body image; peers; parents. The prevalence of weight and body image concerns among preadolescent children is overwhelming. Between 30 and 50% of adolescent girls are either concerned about their weight or are actually dieting (e. g. , Thompson and 1 Vicky Phares, Ph. D. is a Professor and Director of Clinical Training at the University of South Florida. She received her Ph. D. in Clinical Psychology from the University of Vermont. Her major research interests are fathers and developmental psychopathology. She recently published a textbook, Understanding Abnormal Child Psychology with Wiley and Sons. To whom correspondence should be addressed at University of South Florida, Department of Psychology, 4202 E. Fowler Avenue, PCD 4118G, Tampa, Florida 33620; e-mail: [email  protected] cas. usf. edu. 2 Ari R. Steinberg, Ph. D. graduated from the University of South Florida, where she earned her M. A. in Psychology and her Ph. D. in Clinical Psychology. Her major research interests are cognitive and psychosocial correlates to the development of body image; e-mail: [email  protected] cas. usf. edu. 3 J. Kevin Thompson, Ph. D. is a Professor of Psychology at the University of South Florida. He received his Ph. D. in Clinical Psychology from the University of Georgia. His major research interests are body image and eating disorders. Smolak, 2001). Such concerns about size and/or appearance have been found to predict onset of eating disturbances prospectively (Cattarin and Thompson, 1994; Stice, 2001). Although most of the previous research on eating disorders has focused on adult women and adolescent girls, it has recently been shown that weight concerns and body image disturbance exist in younger girls and boys (Cusumano and Thompson, 2001; Field et al. 2001; Ricciardelli and McCabe, 2001; Ricciardelli et al. , 2000; VanderWal and Thelen, 2000). Self-esteem concerns appear to be related to body image disturbance in young children, but there does not appear to be a causal link between self-esteem and body image disturbance (Mendelson et al. , 1996). Speci? cally, body image disturbance and poor self-esteem appear to develop concurrently in young boys and girls. Given the se important issues, the current study attempted to examine the psychological, familial, and social correlates of weight concerns and eating disturbances in preadolescent girls and boys. 21 0047-2891/04/1000-0421/0 C 2004 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. 422 BODY IMAGE AND DIETING BEHAVIOR IN ADOLESCENTS AND CHILDREN The connections between body image disturbance and psychological maladjustment in adolescence have been well documented. There appears to be pervasive concerns among adolescents with respect to their weight, body image, dieting, and eating behavior (Smolak and Levine, 2001; Thompson et al. , 1999). In fact, averageweight adolescent girls are almost as likely to be dieting as their overweight peers (Rodin et al. , 1985). These patterns are evident in both clinical and nonclinical samples. Bunnell et al. (1992) investigated body shape concerns among 5 samples of female adolescents: anorexia nervosa clients, bulimia nervosa clients, subclinical anorexia, subclinical bulimia, and noneating disordered females. They found that body shape dissatisfaction was a prominent concern for most adolescent girls regardless of their level of eating pathology. Thus, by the time of adolescence, the majority of girls have developed weight and body concerns and many have tried dieting or other strategies to alter their physical appearance. Although these issues have received less research attention in preadolescent children, many of the same patterns have emerged in studies of younger children. Children as young as 6 years old express dissatisfaction with their body and a substantial amount (40%) have attempted to lose weight (Thelen et al. , 1992). There is evidence that children as young as 7 are reliable in their reports of dieting (Kostanski and Gullone, 1999). In a sample of thirdthrough sixth-graders, children were very knowledgeable about weight control methods (Schur et al. , 2000). Body dissatisfaction appears to be related to dietary restraint rather than age. In a study that compared 9-year-olds and 14-year-olds, girls with highly restrained eating patterns in both age groups showed low body esteem, and discontent with their body shape and weight (Hill et al. , 1992). Consistent with research on adolescents and young adults, young girls tend to show this dissatisfaction to a greater extent than boys. In samples of children between the ages of 5 and 11 (Collins, 1991; Cusumano and Thompson, 2001; Williamson and Delin, 2001; Wood et al. 1996), girls reported signi? cantly greater body dissatisfaction than did boys. More girls than boys were dieting in a sample of 10–12 year olds (Sands et al. , 1997). Thus, the â€Å"normative discontent† that is shown in adolescent girls and young women (Rodin et al. , 1985) appears to be present in younger girls as well. FAMILIAL INFLUENCES ON BODY IMAGE A logical question relates to why these body image disturb ances occur in such young children. Theories of Phares, Steinberg, and Thompson body image disturbance include biological, sociocultural, familial, and peer-related in? ences (Smolak and Levine, 2001; Steinberg and Phares, 2001). Recently, a great deal of attention has been focused on familial and peer in? uences in the development of body image. Regarding familial in? uences, 2 primary mechanisms have been proposed: parental modeling of dysfunctional eating attitudes and behavior, and parents’ in? uence over their children by direct transmission of weight-related attitudes and opinions, such as comments or teasing. There has been support for both mechanisms in adolescent samples. When compared with mothers of daughters in a nonclinical control group, mothers of adolescent girls with disordered eating patterns showed greater eating disturbance, had a longer history of dieting, and wanted their daughters to lose more weight (Pike and Rodin, 1991). Rieves and Cash (1996) found that daughters’ eating disturbances were related to their perceptions of maternal concern with appearance and preoccupation with being overweight. These studies suggest that adolescent girls may be modeling dysfunctional eating attitudes and behaviors from their parents. There is evidence that parents in? ence their adolescents’ eating disturbances and body image through direct transmission of weight-related attitudes and opinions. Thelen and Cormier (1995) found that mothers’ and fathers’ encouragement of weight control were related to daughters’ desire to be thinner, daughters’ weight, and dieting behaviors. When actual body weight was controlled statistically, only the relationship between daughters’ dieting and fathers’ encouragement to diet remained signi? cant. Direct parental comments about children’s weight had a strong relation with children’s body image, especially mothers’ comments about their daughters (Smolak et al. 1999). Thus, it appears that both maternal and paternal in? uences may be relevant to the development of body image concerns and related issues. These ? ndings suggest that parents can in? uence their attitudes and opinions of weight through direct transmission, although the relative salience of mothers versus fathers has yet to be established. Negative verbal commentary within the family, also known as teasing, has received attention recently. Teasing can be considered an indirect transmission of parental attitudes and opinions. In a sample of lder adolescent college students, parental teasing of females, but not of males, was related to body image dissatisfaction ( Schwartz et al. , 1999). In addition, higher levels of teasing and appearance-related feedback predicted higher levels of psychological disturbance. Taken together, these studies all point to the relationships between adolescents’ body image concerns and parental attitudes and behaviors. Few studies, however, have addressed these issues in younger children. Gender Differences in Peer and Parental In? uences PEER INFLUENCES ON BODY IMAGE The same point can be made for peer in? uences on body image. Although signi? cant relationships have been found in samples of adolescents, few studies have explored these issues in younger children. When investigating adolescents, one study found that adolescents’ disturbed eating and weight concerns were related to the dieting and weight control strategies of peers as well as to the amount they reported talking with peers about dieting (Levine et al. , 1994). In addition, adolescent girls reported their peers as one of the primary sources of information on weight control and dieting (Desmond et al. , 1986). Adolescent girls, more so than adolescent boys, worried about their weight, ? ure, and popularity with peers (Wadden et al. , 1991). Negative verbal commentary by peers has been explored in relation to body image disturbance. Teasing by peers seems to have a strong in? uence on the development of eating and weight concerns (Rieves and Cash, 1996; Thompson, 1996; Thompson and Heinberg, 1993). Teasing by peers tends to be common durin g childhood with physical appearance and weight as the primary focus. Cash (1995) reported that 72% of college women recalled being teased as children, usually with respect to their facial features or body weight and shape. In a study of adolescent girls, Cattarin and Thompson (1994) found that teasing was a signi? cant predictor of overall appearance dissatisfaction above and beyond the in? uence of age, maturational status, and level of obesity. In one of the few studies done with children, Oliver and Thelen (1996) found that children’s perceptions of peers’ negative messages and increased likability by being thin in? uenced their body image and weight concerns. Overall, peers’ attitudes and teasing appear to in? uence body image concerns. Taken together, these studies suggest patterns of familial and peer in? ence on the development of body image concerns. Little is known, however, about the associations of these issues within young children. Even less is known about how familial and peer in? uences are related to body image concerns and psychological functioning in young girls versus young boys. THE CURRENT STUDY On the basis of the ? ndings with adolescent and young adult popul ations, the current study extends these research questions to preadolescent girls and boys. Because the majority of previous research was limited to maternal in? ences on body image (Phares, 1996), the current study will also extend this line of research to explore paternal in? uences on body image. It was hypothesized that gender effects would be revealed concerning young chil- 423 dren’s body image concerns, with young girls reporting more body dissatisfaction and weight-appearance-related concerns than young boys. It was expected that both girls and boys who reported higher levels of body image concerns would show more psychological problems as exhibited by higher levels of depression and lower levels of perceived competence. Both familial in? uences and peer in? ences were expected to be related to girls’ and boys’ body image and eating concerns. METHOD Participants A total of 141 children (64 boys and 77 girls) from two public elementary schools in a large urban area in the southeast participated in the study. On the basis of a power analysis (? level = 0. 05, power = 0. 80, and a medium effect size), it was determined that a minimum sample size of 64 boys and 64 girls would be adequate to test the hypotheses (Cohen, 1992). The mean age of the overall sample was 9. 23 years (SD = 1. 08) and did not differ between boys (M = 9. 31; SD = 1. 04) and girls (M = 9. 7; SD = 1. 12; t(139) = 0. 79; p = 0. 434). The sample was ethnically diverse (63. 1% Caucasian, 21. 3% African American, 12. 8% Hispanic/Latino/Latina, 0. 7% Asian American, and 2. 1% other). With respect to grade level, 14. 2% were in the second grade, 44. 0% were in the third grade, 27. 6% were in the fourth grade, and 14. 2% were in the ? fth grade. The distribution of girls and boys did not differ for race/ethnicity or for grade level ( ps > 0. 05). A total of 77 mothers and 48 fathers participated in the study. Measures Family In? uences Two measures were used to assess fun ctioning within the family. The Perceptions of Teasing Scale (POTS) is a revised and extended version of the Physical Appearance Related Teasing Scale (Thompson et al. , 1995). The measure has been used with children as young as 10 years old, therefore, the 8- and 9-year-old participants in this study were younger than previous participants who completed the POTS. The Weight Teasing Scale, which consists of 6 questions concerned with the frequency of appearancerelated teasing, was used in the current study. Participants answered these questions for their mother and father separately, and scores were totaled for an overall frequency of parental teasing score. Higher numbers on this 5-point scale re? ect greater frequency of negative verbal commentary. Coef? cient ? s in the current study were adequate for 424 reports of mothers (0. 72) and fathers (0. 84). Note that only 24% of the children in this sample scored above a 0 on this measure. Children, mothers, and fathers completed the Family History of Eating (FHE-Child and FHE-Parent; Moreno and Thelen, 1993). Both versions of the FHE are scored along a 5-point Likert scale and are used to assess attitudes concerning body shape and weight, dieting, and familial eating patterns and behaviors. The parent version assesses parents’ perceptions whereas the child version focuses on the child’s perception of the family. Higher numbers re? ect greater familial concern with body shape and weight. Reliabilities in the current study were adequate based on the coef? cient ? for children (0. 80), mothers (0. 77), and fathers (0. 75). Peer In? uences Children completed the Inventory of Peer In? uence on Eating Concerns (IPIEC; Oliver and Thelen, 1996), which is a 30-item measure of peer in? uence on children’s eating and body shape concerns. The measure consists of 5 factors: Messages, Interactions/Girls, Interactions/Boys, Likability/Girls, and Likability/Boys. The Messages factor re? ects the frequency with which children receive negative messages from peers regarding their body or eating behaviors. The Interactions factors address the frequency with which children interact with peers (boys and girls) about weight and eating habits. The Likability factors measure the degree to which children believe that being thin will increase the degree to which they are liked by their peers (boys and girls). Items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale, where higher numbers re? ect greater peer in? uence. For the present study, total mean scale scores of all items were used to calculate a total peer in? uence score. The coef? cient ? in the current study (0. 94) was strong. Obesity Level The Quetelet’s Index of Fatness is a body mass index (BMI) that is computed for each child with the following formula: weight/(squared height). The Quetelet’s Index is used routinely as an index of adiposity and is correlated highly with skinfold and other fatness measures. Height and weight were obtained by self-report. Previous research has shown that young adolescents’ self-reports are highly correlated with actual measurements of weight and height (Brooks-Gunn et al. , 1987; Field et al. , 2002). Eating Disturbance and Body Image Children completed the Eating Disorder Inventory for Children (EDI-C; Garner, 1984), which measures self- Phares, Steinberg, and Thompson perceptions of eating disturbances and body image. Items are answered on a 6-point Likert scale and subscales are averaged to produce mean scale scores. Three of the eight subscales were used in the present study: Drive for Thinness (excessive concern with dieting, preoccupation with weight, and extreme fear of weight gain), Body Dissatisfaction (dissatisfaction with overall shape and with the size of those body regions of most concern to individuals with eating disorders), and Bulimia (thinking about and engaging in uncontrollable overeating, or binging behaviors). Coef? cient ? s were adequate in the current sample for the Drive for Thinness subscale (0. 83), the Body Dissatisfaction subscale (0. 63), and the Bulimia subscale (0. 76). On all subscales, higher numbers re? ect higher levels of body image concerns or related behaviors. Psychological Functioning Children completed 2 measures that assess their psychological functioning. The Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs, 1992) is a widely used self-report measure of affective, cognitive, and behavioral symptoms of depression in children. Items are scores on a 0- to 2-point scale, with higher scores re? ecting higher levels of depression. The total CDI score, which showed good reliability in the current sample (coef? cient ? = 0. 91) was used. Children also completed the Self-Perception Pro? e for Children (Harter, 1985), which assesses children’s perceptions of themselves across different domains. For the current study, the global self-worth subscale was used. Note that the global self-worth scale consists of questions that are separate from any of the other domains (e. g. , the physical appearance domain is not subsumed under the global se lf-worth rating). Higher scores on the 4-point scale re? ect higher perceptions of global self-worth. Adequate reliability (coef? cient ? = 0. 79) was shown in the current sample. Procedures Active parental consent and child assent were given for involvement in the study. Once consent and assent were obtained and data collection was initiated, no children dropped out of the study nor did any children refuse to take part in the study. Participating children completed questionnaires in small groups at school. Examiners read each question aloud and children put their answers on the questionnaires individually. Parents were mailed their questionnaires (the FHE-P and a brief demographics form) and were asked to return their completed questionnaires to the researchers in a postage-paid envelope. Multiple mail- Gender Differences in Peer and Parental In? uences Table I. Means and t-Tests for Gender Comparisons Variable Body mass index (BMI) Body Dissatisfaction Bulimia Drive for Thinness Family History of Eating—Child Inventory of Peer In? uence on Eating Concerns Perceptions of Teasing—Frequency Depression Global Self-Worth a Statistically 425 Girls (n = 77), mean (SD) 18. 91 (3. 80) 20. 29 (10. 10) 13. 38 (7. 32) 18. 21 (9. 64) 19. 99 (8. 38) 1. 80 (0. 84) 1. 62 (4. 62) 48. 83 (12. 06) 19. 06 (4. 74) Boys (n = 64), mean (SD) 19. 01 (3. 80) 18. 38 (8. 83) 15. 05 (7. 63) 13. 13 (6. 61) 17. 56 (5. 54) 1. 66 (0. 73) 1. 33 (2. 97) 49. 13 (13. 47) 18. 92 (4. 75) t 0. 09 ? 1. 18 1. 32 ? 3. 58 ? 1. 98 ? . 02 ? 0. 44 0. 14 ? 0. 18 p 0. 932 0. 239 0. 188 0. 000a 0. 049a 0. 311 0. 660 0. 892 0. 859 signi? cant. ings were sent in an attempt to obtain maximum parental participation. The ? nal response rate was 54. 6% (n = 77) for mothers and 34. 0% (n = 48) for fathers. RESULTS Gender Comparisons As expected, girls showed somewhat greater concern over weight and body image issues than did boys. Signi? cantly more girls (61. 0%) than boys (35. 9%) wanted to lose weight, ? 2 (2) = 13. 38, p < 0. 001. As can be seen in Table I, there were additional gender differences on body image, restriction, and disturbed eating behaviors measures. When compared with boys, girls reported a higher drive for thinness, t(139) = ? 3. 58; p < 0. 001, and a more troubled family history of eating concerns, t(139) = ? 1. 98; p < 0. 05 (i. e. , girls reported receiving more messages regarding weight and dieting from their parents than did boys). Girls and boys did not differ signi? cantly on body mass index, body dissatisfaction, bulimic behaviors, peers’ eating concerns, or frequency of parental teasing. There were also no gen- der differences in depressive symptoms or global selfworth. Thus, there was some limited support for gender differences. Relations Between Body Image and Psychological Functioning Correlational analyses were computed in order to investigate the relations between body image and psychological functioning. As can be seen in Table II, signi? cant correlations were revealed for all of the measures for girls and most of the measures for boys. Girls’ reports of body dissatisfaction, bulimic tendencies, and drive for thinness were related to higher levels of depression and lower levels of global self-worth. For boys, body dissatisfaction was related to higher levels of depression and lower levels of global self-worth. Bulimic tendencies were not significantly related to either depressive symptoms or global self-worth. Drive for thinness was related to lower levels of global self-worth but was not signi? cantly related to depression. Thus, the expected pattern of results was found for girls consistently, and partial support was found for boys. Table II. Correlations Between Eating Disturbance and Psychological Functioning Variables 1 1. Body Dissatisfaction 2. Bulimia 3. Drive for Thinness 4. Family History of Eating—Child 5. Inventory of Peer In? uences on Eating Concerns 6. Perceptions of Teasing—Frequency 7. Depression 8. Global Self-Worth — 0. 42 0. 42 0. 32? 0. 26? 0. 44 0. 37 ?0. 42 2 0. 47 — 0. 25? 0. 23 0. 10 0. 29? 0. 14 ? 0. 01 3 0. 56 0. 55 — 0. 67 0. 32? 0. 60 0. 19 ? 0. 39? 4 0. 53 0. 56 0. 58 — 0. 12 0. 41 ?0. 03 ? 0. 03 5 0. 49 0. 55 0. 48 0. 53 — 0. 18 0. 29? ?0. 21 6 0. 32 0. 34 0. 27? 0. 44 0. 38 — 0. 29? ?0. 37 7 0. 58 0. 60 0. 55 0. 63 0. 59 0. 45 — ? 0. 58 8 ? 0. 64 ?0. 48 ?0. 49 ?0. 52 ?0. 52 ?0. 35 ?0. 71 — Note. Boys are in the lower left quadrant and girls are in the upper right quadrant. ? p < 0. 5; p < 0. 01; p < 0. 001. 426 Relations Between Parental In? uences, Peer In? uences, and Body Image Disturbance Table II also reports the results of correlations for parental in? uences, peer in? uences, and body image disturbance. For girls, all of the correlations were signi? cant. Speci? cally, girls’ body dissatisfaction, bulimia, and drive for thinness were related to higher levels of family history of eating concern s, peer in? uences on eating concerns, and perceptions of teasing. For boys, 7 of the 9 correlations were signi? cant. Speci? cally, boys’ body dissatisfaction was signi? antly related to higher levels of family history of eating concerns, peer in? uences on eating concerns, and perceptions of teasing. Boys’ tendency toward bulimia was signi? cantly related to perceptions of teasing, but not family history or peer in? uences. Boys’ drive for thinness was related to family history, peer in? uences, and perceptions of teasing. Overall, there was somewhat more support for the connections between parental in? uences, peer in? uences, and body image disturbance for girls, but there was clear evidence of connections for boys when body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness were considered. Phares, Steinberg, and Thompson of family history and children’s reports of eating disturbance and body image concerns. These ? ndings suggest that children’s perceptions of family history and parents’ perceptions of family history are not related strongly. Missing Parental Data To assess whether there were systematic differences between parents who did or did not participate, t tests were conducted to examine any possible differences between children whose parents returned questionnaires and those children whose parents did not return questionnaires. With the exception of family history, t(139) = 2. 33, p < 0. 02, no other signi? cant differences were revealed. Children whose parents returned questionnaires reported signi? cantly higher levels of family emphasis on weight and body shape (M = 20. 15, SD = 7. 90) than children whose parents did not return questionnaires (M = 17. 32, SD = 6. 20). There were no signi? cant differences between children with parental data and children without parental data on the following variables: Body Dissatisfaction (from the EDI-C), Bulimia (from the EDI-C), Drive for Thinness (from the EDI-C), peer in? ences (from the IPIEC), or perceptions to teasing (from the POTS). Thus, the exploratory analyses with parental data are likely to be generalizable for all of the variables other than family history. Parental Data For exploratory purposes, paired t tests were conducted to examine the differences in mothers’ and fathers’ reports of parental in? uence regarding weight and body shape co ncerns. Mothers (M = 18. 57, SD = 5. 32) placed more emphasis on weight and body shape concerns than did fathers (M = 15. 94, SD = 5. 29), t(47) = ? 3. 96, p < 0. 001. Further examination of parental differences revealed that mothers reported placing more importance on weight and body image concerns than did fathers for both their daughters, t(29) = ? 2. 93, p < 0. 006, and sons, t(27) = ? 2. 61, p < 0. 01. These results suggest that, regardless of child gender, mothers tend to place more emphasis on weight and dieting than do fathers. To examine the relationship between children’s selfreports and parental reports, correlations were conducted for parents’ reports of family history of eating concerns and children’s reports of eating disturbance and psychological functioning. A signi? cant correlation was revealed for mothers’ reports of family history and children’s reports of family history, r (77) = 0. 25, p < 0. 05. These results suggest that mothers and children perceived similar familial in? uences regarding weight and body shape. In addition, signi? cant correlations were revealed for maternal report of family history and children’s report of global self-worth, r (77) = ? 0. 27, p < 0. 05. No other signi? cant correlations were revealed for maternal or paternal reports DISCUSSION Overall, the results of this study support and extend previous research suggesting that both parental and peer in? uences are related to the development of body image and weight concerns in preadolescent girls and boys. It is likely that both factors play an integral part in children’s formations of maladaptive beliefs, attitudes, and expectations concerning weight, physical appearance, and body image. Further, there appear to be some differences but some similarities in how girls and boys experience these issues. Similar to previous research, girls in this study exhibited a somewhat greater degree of concern regarding weight and body image issues than did boys. Not only were they more aware of issues surrounding weight and dieting, but girls were more active in attempts to become and/or remain â€Å"thin. † In addition, it appears that girls received more messages within the family setting regarding weight and body image concerns. Although most investigations of body image concerns tend to recruit only female participants (e. g. , Attie and Brooks-Gunn, 1989; Cattarin and Thompson, 1994), the studies of gender differences Gender Differences in Peer and Parental In? uences in body image have used primarily adolescent samples (e. g. , Childress et al. , 1993; reviewed in Cohane and Pope, 2001). The present results support similar ? ndings for preadolescent children, which indicates that these gender differences begin to develop at an earlier age, prior to any pubertal changes (Collins, 1991; Oliver and Thelen, 1996; Shapiro et al. , 1997; Wood et al. , 1996). The results of this study provide support for a relationship between body image concerns and depressive symptoms (Herzog et al. 1992) and self-esteem (Wood et al. , 1996). Overall, children who expressed higher levels of body image disturbance reported higher rates of depressive symptoms and lower levels of global self-worth. Although this pattern was more evident in girls, the same pattern existed for boys when body dissatisfaction was considered. Prior research has revealed support for both parental (Sanftner et al. , 1996; Thelen and Cormier, 19 95) and peer (Cattarin and Thompson, 1994; Oliver and Thelen, 1996) in? uences on children’s eating and body image concerns. This study found support for peer and parental in? ences for girls and to a lesser extent, for boys. Most of the research on peer in? uences has been conducted with adolescent populations of girls (Levine et al. , 1994). In this study, similar patterns emerged for boys and girls when body dissatisfaction (as opposed to bulimic tendencies) were evaluated. It may be that preadolescent boys are struggling with body dissatisfaction, but in such a manner that is not captured by the measurement of bulimic tendencies. The measurement of parental teasing from the POTS measure was particularly useful in helping to understand boys’ experiences. A number of previous studies have documented the connections between negative verbal commentary and body image concerns in girls (Cattarin and Thompson, 1994; Schwartz et al. , 1999). In the current study, boys’ perceptions of parental teasing were related to higher levels of body dissatisfaction, bulimic tendencies, drive for thinness, family history of eating concerns, and depression and lower levels of global self-worth. Thus, further exploration of perceptions of parental teasing in both boys and girls may be fruitful. On the basis of the results of this study, the implications for prevention and intervention are numerous. Given the wealth of support for the existence of body image concerns in preadolescent children (Collins, 1991; Shapiro et al. , 1997; Thelen et al. , 1992; Wood et al. , 1996), it is imperative to address weight and body image concerns with children prior to adolescence. Psychoeducational programs could be helpful to inform children of the parental, peer, and sociocultural in? uences on their attitudes and beliefs concerning weight and physical appearance. Several universal psychoeducational programs 427 have been instituted and evaluated for school-aged children (reviewed in Levine and Smolak, 2001). Although this study found some gender differences in preadolescent children’s experiences of body image disturbance, the common pattern of associations among variables for both boys and girls would suggest that preventive efforts could be targeted to girls and boys together. Intervention programs are also necessary given the connections between familial in? uences and body image concerns in young children and the resultant connections between body image concerns and eating disorders (Cattarin and Thompson, 1994; Steinhausen and Vollrath, 1993; Thompson et al. 1999). Parents need to be educated about the negative consequences of their own weight and body image issues on the development of related problems in their children (Archibald et al. , 1999). Treatment programs should take family functioning into account and should address the strong connections between body image concerns and poor psychological functioning (Steinberg and Phares, 2001). There are several limitations to t he study indicating that these results should be interpreted with caution. First, the ross-sectional nature of the study precludes interpretations related to causality. For example, it could be that higher levels of depression lead to higher rates of body dissatisfaction in both boys and girls. A prospective study of girls and boys from early childhood to adolescence and even adulthood could help answer the direction of causality. In addition, because there was a signi? cant difference in family history of eating concerns (FHE-C) between children with and without completed parental data, the preliminary analyses of parental reports have to be viewed cautiously. Although other studies have found relatively few differences between participating and nonparticipating mothers and fathers (Phares, 1995), the differences in this sample suggest that the parental data may not be representative of the larger population. This study attempted to limit common method variance by including parents rather than just relying on children’s self-reports. This inclusion of parents, however, led to other dif? culties. Future studies in this area could bene? t from more intense efforts to recruit and maintain parents for participation in research. Even with these limitations, this study provided support for parental and peer in? uences on the development of body image disturbance in preadolescent girls and boys. It is likely that both peers and family members contribute to the development of body image disturbance and weight concerns of young children. 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